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BIOL102 Principles of Biology: Final Exam Review SheetFall 2006


Exam date: Wednesday Dec 20 11:00-12:50pm room 601

The exam will be cumulative.  Approximately 15-20% of the exam will be on new material that we have covered since the last exam.    This includes portions of Chapters   10 and 12 .  These questions will be more detailed than questions on the older material.  The remaining 80-85% will be on material from previous exams (~27% from each exam).  The exam will consist entirely of multiple choice problems (100 problems).   If you are someone who routinely has trouble with this format, here are some helpful hints:

1. Read the question carefully.  Think about what I am actually asking.  Look for any key words such as NOT.
2. Go with your first instinct.  Often second guessing and over-analyzing your answer makes you change to an incorrect answer.   Yes there will be answers similar to the correct one, otherwise it would be too easy, but these are not meant to confuse, but to be sure you know your stuff!
3. If you have never heard of a word before, it is the incorrect answer.  In an effort to come up with four incorrect choices I often make up a word that sounds related to the topic at hand, but is a nonsense word.  If it is unfamiliar from the text and lecture, don't chose that answer.
4. Use the process of elimination. Out if 4 to five possible choices, one is correct, one is a "toughie" --one I think you may confuse with the real answer, the other 2 to 3 are usually easily eliminated (see number 3).  Try to get it down to 2, and then hey, you are down to 50% chance!
5. Please ask if you don't understand the question.  I cannot give you the answer, but sometimes I can rephrase the question in a way that makes more sense to you.  Also, I do make mistakes, I freely admit it, so don't hesitate to point them out. 
 

This is the review sheet for the entire exam.  Do try to keep in mind what are some of the bigger concepts that we have covered during the course.   Use your quizzes to get an idea of the type of questions I may ask.   Hope this is helpful.  As usual, feel free to contact me with any questions you may have.

If you would like to look at your previous exams, please stop by my office. I will be in my office the following hours:


Thursday December 14 11:00-3:30 (will be in room 601 from 2:00-3:30-come see me there)
Friday December 15th 9:30-11:00
Monday December 18th 9:30-2:15
Tuesday December 19th 9:30-2:15
Wednesday December 20th 9:30-11:00
 

 I will give you the exams to look over in a nearby room, and then you can return them to me. If I am not available during these posted hours, I will be leaving the exams in the lab technician's prep room (600) and you can ask to see them. Either Gail or Maura will allow you to look at them in a nearby room, and then you can return the exams to them. The exams will not be available outside of these posted hours. If you would like to request a different time, let me know and we can try to arrange an appointment.

Mendelian Genetics

What are gametes?
  • Understand the terms: monohybrid cross, P generation, F1 generation and F2 generation.
  • Know the terms homozygous or heterozygous.
  • What are alleles?  How many alleles does an individual have?  How many alleles does a gamete have?
  • Monohydrid cross This is a  cross involving a single characteristic (monohydrid) Monohydrid cross This is a  cross involving a single characteristic (monohydrid)
  • The Punnett Square: Use to determine genotypic and phenotypic ratios
  • Understand the difference between dominant and recessive traits.
  • How do genotypes and phenotypes differ?
  • Be able to use a Punnett square to predict genotypes and phenotypes.
  • Be able to report the outcome of such a cross in terms of genotypes or phenotypes.
  • Know that genes are carried on cell structures called chromosomes.
  • How many chromosomes are in a human somatic cell?
  • How many chromosomes are in a human gamete (egg or sperm)?
  • Understand incomplete dominance and be able to give an example. How does this affect the genotype and phenotype ratio?  (In other words, how is it difeferent than a typical dominant/recessive inheritance)

Some Basic Chemistry:

Know these terms:  Atom , Molecule, covalent bond
What are the most common elements in living things? 
Be able to list the four general types of biological macromolecules.
Understand that the macromolecules are built by bonding together smaller molecules, known as monomers.

Macromolecules:

  • Know the four types of biological macromolecules. 
  • What is dehydration synthesis?  
  • What is hydrolysis? 

Carbohydrates

Made up of simple sugar monomers called monosaccharides (glucose is the particular monosaccharide used to make all of the polysaccharides that we discussed in class).
Understand: Monosaccharide, Polysaccharide.
Know the functions of the following polysaccharides and also how they differ from one another.  Are they in plants or animals?
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin

Lipids

  • All  lipids are hydrophobic.
  • Be familiar with the functions of:
    Fatty acids, Fats (triglycerides), Phospholpids, waxes, Steroids
  • Lipids are not made by linking together of similar monomers. 
  • Which lipids contain fatty acids and which do not?

Proteins

Proteins are made up of monomers, called amino acids.  There are 20 amino acids
The folded structure of proteins is important in determining the function of the protein
What are some important functions for proteins in our cells?

Nucleic Acids

Are made up of monomers, called nucleotides.
Be familiar with the structures and functions of: DNA and RNA

Membrane Structure and Function

All cells have a cell membrane (plasma membrane)
Know two different general functions of the cell membrane.
Understand the arrangement of a phospholipid bilayer.
  • Know the the following components of the membrane and their functions: Phospholipids, Protein

Eukayotic Cells

  • Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized and have membrane bound organelles.  The Table below lists organelles plus other cellular components.
Cytosoplasm Mitochondria Vesicles
Nucleus Chloroplasts central vacuole
Ribosomes Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) Lysosomes
Plasma membrane smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER) Cytoskeleton
Flagella/cilia Golgi apparatus Cell wall
  • Know the functions of these organelles (use your organelle review sheet, plus summary table in text)
  • Know which are present in animal cells only and which are present in plant cells only.
  • Know which organelles are surrounded by membrane and which are not
  • Know which organelles are found in eukaryotic cells and which are found in prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria)

  • Know at least three ways prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differ from one another.
  • Remember that bacteria are prokaryotic.

Transport Through Membranes

Passive Transport (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis): Movement in the direction of the concentration gradient (No ATP Required).

  • What is diffusion?
  • Simple diffusion: movement across a membrane (for small hydrophobic molecules such as O2 and CO2) in the direction of the concentration gradient
  • Osmosis: diffusion of H2O through a membrane
  • Review the terms, solution, solvent, and solute.
  • Know what happens to a cells in  isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.
  • Facilitated diffusion is used for molecules, which do not freely pass through the membrane. A channel protein is needed (for larger (still small) or hydrophilic substances (such as ions, amino acid, glucose)

Active Transport

Requires ATP
Using pumps: Moves solutes against the concentration gradient (from low to high concentration).
Using vesicles : Exocytosis, Endocytosis
Be able to describe these methods of transport and understand how they differ from one another.  Used for large molecules

Cell Cycle

  • Interphase
    • DNA replication (during S phase of interphase)
    • DNA is in chromatin form
  • Cell Division = mitosis + cytokinesis

Chromosomes/mitosis

  • Be able to distinguish between chromatin, chromosomes, and chromatids
  • Chromosome are composed of both DNA and protein
  • Be familiar with the order of the stages of mitosis
  • Know what happens in each stage of mitosis
  • Be able to identify a drawing of a particular stage of mitosis
    •
  • Functions of mitosis: asexual reproduction, repair and renewal of cells

Cytokinesis

  • When does cytokinesis occur?
  • How does cytokinesis occur in animal cells?  in plant cells?

Meiosis

  • Know what is meant by the term homologous pair
  • know what is meant by diploid and haploid
  • Be able to tell me how many chromosomes or chromatids would be present in a diploid or haploid cell
  • Be familiar with the terms: zygote, gamete, fertilization
  • Be familiar with the order of the stages of meiosis
  • Know what happens in each stage of meiosis
  • Be able to identify a drawing of a particular stage of meiosis
  • Where does meiosis occur? 
  • Functions of meiosis: production of gametes, increase genetic diversity
  • What is the same between mitosis and meiosis?  What is different?

Kayotype

  • Know what a karyotype is
  • A Karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individuals chromosomes; Chromosomes are are arranged in homologous pairs, and from large to small
  • Humans have 46 chromosomes - 23 homologous pairs; 22 homologous pairs are autosomes, the remaining pair are the sex chromosomes
  • males = XY. Female = XX

Chromosome Abnormalities

  • Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number
    •
  • Nondisjunction - an accident in meiosis in which members of a chromosome pair fail to separate
    Nondisjunction can result in an abnormal number of chromosomes
  • Abnormal numbers of autosomes is often lethal and miscarried before birth, only extra copies of the smaller chromosomes are tolerated (like 21) but the effects are quite serious
  • An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down Syndrome; people with Downs syndrome have three copies of chromosome 21  - this condition is called trisomy 21
  • An extra copy of chromosome 13 causes Patau syndrome; people with this syndrome have three copies of chromosome 13 -- this condition is called trisomy 13
  • An extra copy of chromosome 18 causes Edwards syndrome; people with this syndrome have three copies of chromosome 18-- this condition is called trisomy 18
  • Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival
  • Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes are better tolerated than abnormal numbers of autosomes
  • Klinefelters syndrome -XXY
  • Turners syndrome - XO
  • Presence of Y = male; absence of Y = female

THE NEW STUFF:

chapter 10:

DNA Structure

  • G, A, T, C = 4 nucleotides that make up DNA
  • What are the three components of a nucleotide?
  • Watson Crick model: Nucleotides are linked together (using dehydration synthesis reactions, of course!) to make a chain; two chains are held together by weak hydrogen  bonds to make a double stranded helical molecule. 
  • A always pairs with T; G always pairs with C
  • Be able to determine the second DNA strand if given a single strand of DNA
  • RNA nucleotides = G, A, U, and C
  • DNA replication
    • each strand is template for new strand
    • new strand made based on complimentarity between strands (follows base-pairing rules)
    • DNA Polymerase = enzyme that copies new strand by bringing in the new complimentary nucleotides and joining them together. 

DNA to Proteins  

  • DNA ---->RNA----->Protein
  • DNA, which contains genetic information, is stored in nucleus
  • DNA is copied during TRANSCRIPTION into mRNA which can leave the nucleus
  • A new RNA is copied from a specific DNA region according to base-pairing rules during transcription
  • RNA polymerase is the enzyme that adds new nucleotides during transcription
  • What is a promoter sequence?
  •  
  • The information on mRNA is TRANSLATED into protein in the cytoplasm
  • What is mRNA and how is it involved in the process?
  • What is rRNA and how is rRNA involved in the process?
  • What is tRNA and how is tRNA involved in the process?
  • RNAs must be attached to ribosomes, the protein making organelles, to make protein
  • RNA nucleotides = G, A, U, and C.  What does U pair with during transcription?
  • Be able to make an mRNA sequence if given a DNA sequence, and the be able to "translate" this mRNA into protein using the genetic code. (Like the in-class exercise)
  • AUG = start codon
  • what is a codon? 
  • what is an anticodon?
  • What "ingredients" are necessary for translation to occur in a cell?
  • What are the three stages of translation?  be familiar with the overall process of translation--how the mRNA moves through the ribosome and how tRNAs bring in amino acids, etc. 

Chapter 12:

DNA Technology THIS ONLY IF WE GET TO IT IN LECTURE

  • What is DNA Technology?
  • Recombinant DNA?
  • What is Humalin? How is its production different than that of insulin in the 1970s?
  • What are some applications of Recombinant DNA Technology?
  • What are plasmids?  How are they used in recombinant DNA technology?
  • Review the general procedure for creating recombinant DNA molecules (figures 12.9 and 12.10)
  • Restrictions enzymes = "molecular scissors" to cut DNA at specific sequences. 
  • DNA ligase = "molecular glue" to join pieces of DNA together. 
  • Where is the GFP gene from?  What does it do when transferred to bacteria?